- Introduction
- Who are today’s 14–24-year-olds?
- How are the socio-demographic markers of adulthood changing?
- The challenges to traditional understandings of journeys to adulthood
- Mapping new pathways to adulthood
Looking at long-standing trends, young people as a whole are reaching the five markers at later ages than previous generations[ref]Hagell, A. (2012). Changing adolescence: Social trends and mental health. Bristol University Press; and Ball, J., et al. (2023). The great decline in adolescent risk behaviours: Unitary trend, separate trends, or cascade? This explores international data and the possible explanations for these changes. Social Science and Medicine 317, 115616. Available at: https://researchonline.gcu.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/77085419/77080161.pdf. Research funded by the Nuffield Foundation.[/ref]. However, transitions are highly differentiated by group (e.g. social class, ethnicity, gender, disability, care experience) and place and the intersections between them.
These changes in the timing and patterns of journeys to adulthood to some extent reflect the lengthening of the overall adult lifespan and are shaped by a combination of wider economic and social changes, public policy and changes in norms. Here the focus is on the transition points themselves, rather than interrogating what is driving these changes.
Young people are:
Staying in education or training for longer: Levels of post-16 participation are high across all four nations, with over 92% of 16–17-year-olds continuing in some form of education and training in 2022[ref]Robson, J., et al. (2024). Comparing policies, participation and inequalities across UK post-16 Education and Training landscapes. Centre for Skills, Knowledge and Organisational Performance (SKOPE), Education Policy Institute. Research funded by the Nuffield Foundation.[/ref]. In England, the education and training participation rate of 16–17-year-olds increased by nine percentage points to 92.7% between 2000 and 2022 (see Figure 2)[ref]Department for Education (2023). Participation in education, training and employment age 16 to 18. Available from: https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/participation-in-education-and-training-and-employment/2023 [Accessed 11 September 2024].[/ref]. This trend pre-dates the two-stage extension of the requirement to participate in some form of education and training from the age of 16 to 18 in England between 2013 and 2015. For 18-year-olds, the participation rate in England has increased by close to four percentage points between 2000 and 2022.
Figure 2: Participation in education and training, for 16–17- and 18-year-olds, 2000–2022 (England)[ref]Department for Education (2023). Participation in education, training and employment age 16 to 18. Available from: https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/participation-in-education-and-training-and-employment/2023 [Accessed 11 September 2024].[/ref]
Starting work later: As seen in Figure 3, the employment rate, which includes those in full and part-time work and apprenticeships for 16–17-year-olds in the UK, has fallen significantly between 2000 and 2024 regardless of education status – from 40% to 20% for those in full-time education, and from 63% to 36% for those not in full-time education. For 18–24-year-olds, employment has fallen from 41% in 2000 to 33% in 2024 for those in full-time education, and from 77% in 2000 to 72% in 2024 for those not in full-time education[ref]Office for National Statistics (2024). Labour Force Survey: Educational status and labour market status for people aged from 16 to 24 (seasonally adjusted) [online]. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/datasets/educationalstatusandlabourmarketstatusforpeopleagedfrom16to24seasonallyadjusteda06sa [Accessed 12 March 2025].[/ref]. (See Figure 7 for data on young people not in education, employment or training, and Section 2 for a discussion of the reliability of the Labour Force Survey data.)
Figure 3: Employment rate for 16–17- and 18–24-year-olds, by full-time education status (UK, seasonally adjusted)[ref]Office for National Statistics (2024). Labour Force Survey: Educational status and labour market status for people aged from 16 to 24 (seasonally adjusted) [online]. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/datasets/educationalstatusandlabourmarketstatusforpeopleagedfrom16to24seasonallyadjusteda06sa [Accessed 12 March 2025].[/ref]
Staying in the family home for longer: In 2023, the age at which most young people moved out of their family home in the UK was 24[ref]Office for National Statistics (2024). Young adults living with their parents [online]. Available from: www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/families/datasets/youngadultslivingwiththeirparents/current [Accessed 11 September 2024][/ref]. In 2000, this occurred at 21. For the oldest section of this study’s cohort of 14–24-year-olds – aged 23 at the time of the latest data release in 2023 – half were still living with their parents, representing a 13-percentage-point increase since 2000[ref]Office for National Statistics (2024). Young adults living with their parents [online]. Available from: www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/families/datasets/youngadultslivingwiththeirparents/current [Accessed 11 September 2024].[/ref].
Getting married later, if at all: Data shows dramatic reductions in the number of young people getting married over time in England and Wales. The number of individuals getting married below the age of 20 fell by over 85% between 2002 and 2022, and by 70% among 20–24-year-olds. The total number of marriages for those aged 34 or younger fell by 18% between 2002 and 2022[ref]Office for National Statistics (2024). Marriages in England and Wales: 2021 and 2022. Available from: www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/marriagecohabitationandcivilpartnerships/bulletins/marriagesinenglandandwalesprovisional/2021and2022 [Accessed 12 September 2024]. The data used in this section includes both same-sex and opposite-sex marriages, but does not include civil partnerships (both same and opposite sex). Over 97% of legal partnerships are marriages and the data for civil partnerships also shows a trend towards partnerships happening at later ages. See: Office for National Statistics (2024). Civil partnerships in England and Wales: 2022. Available from: www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/marriagecohabitationandcivilpartnerships/bulletins/civilpartnershipsinenglandandwales/2022.[/ref]. However, the proportion of younger adults living as a couple has remained stable – only changing from 29% to 28% between 2002 and 2022 for those aged 16–29 – due to increasing rates of cohabitation (see Figure 6)[ref]Office for National Statistics (2024). Population estimates by marital status and living arrangements, England and Wales. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/populationestimatesbymaritalstatusandlivingarrangements [Accessed 13 March 2024].[/ref].
Having children later: The age at which women have their first child has been increasing for more than 40 years and has continued in recent times. In 2022, the average age of first-time mothers in England and Wales was 29.2 – two and a half years older than it was in 2000. While comparable figures for men having their first child are not available, the mean age of fathers has also risen by two years over the past two decades. At younger ages, the fall in the fertility rate has been particularly large, with live births per 1,000 women aged 15–19 three times lower in 2022 than the rate in 2000 (to 9 per 1,000 from 29 per 1,000)[ref]Office for National Statistics (2024). Births by parents’ characteristics. Available from: www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/livebirths/datasets/birthsbyparentscharacteristics [Accessed 12 September 2024].[/ref].
Young people are reaching these markers later – and some markers not at all. This raises the question of how far the five markers provide insights into contemporary journeys to adulthood. Their relevance, desirability, attainability, reliability and sufficiency have been questioned in our conversations with young people in our Youth Insight Group to date as well as in existing research[ref]Adapted from Walther, A., and Stauber, B. (eds.) (2002). Misleading Trajectories: Integration Policies for Young Adults in Europe? Springer VS.[/ref],[ref]Guerrero Puerta, L. (2023). A Review of Evolving Paradigms in Youth Studies. Societies 13(6), 136.[/ref].