Comparing inequality and outcomes across post-16 education in the UK

Aims of the research

This project examined post-16 education and training (E&T) systems across the four UK nations, exploring how divergent policy approaches shape educational participation, pathways, outcomes, and inequalities. It sought to understand the relationships between policymakers, education providers, employers, and young people, and how different systems respond to skills needs and support transitions into employment.

Methodological approach

The research was undertaken collaboratively by the University of Oxford’s Centre on Skills, Knowledge, and Organisational Performance (SKOPE) and the Education Policy Institute (EPI). It combined quantitative analysis of educational and early labour market inequalities with qualitative research examining policy frameworks, six industry case studies, and young people’s experiences of navigating post-16 pathways. Comparative analysis across the four nations was complemented by extensive engagement with policymakers, practitioners, and sector stakeholders.

Key findings

The research found that persistent policy churn, fragmented pathways, and weak coordination have created confusion for young people, reinforced inequalities, and undermined effective responses to skills needs. Market-based approaches, particularly in England, have encouraged institutional competition rather than collaboration, while employer engagement often remains superficial and disconnected from education and training provision.

Significant inequalities persist across the UK, with particularly concerning outcomes in Wales, where participation and attainment are lower and rates of young people not in education, employment or training are higher. Across all four nations, access to apprenticeships remains limited and unequal, particularly for younger and disadvantaged learners.

Implications for policy, practice and future research

The findings highlight the need to move from competition towards more coordinated, integrated tertiary education systems, combining national strategic frameworks with place-based collaboration between providers, employers, and policymakers. Recommendations include strengthening meaningful employer engagement, improving careers guidance and transitions, widening equitable access to apprenticeships, addressing further education workforce challenges, and developing more stable pathways.

The research has contributed to policy discussions, particularly the development of England’s Post-16 Education and Skills White Paper, has been used to frame tertiary discussions in Wales, and informed ongoing work on integrated tertiary systems. The project points to a need for further research examining mechanisms for more effective place-based coordination of post-16 E&T.